Introduction
In their seminal framework of the causes of undernutrition,1 the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) identified three underlying causes of undernutrition: inadequate care and feeding practices,2 household food insecurity, and an unhealthy household environment and inadequate health services. All are behavior related. According to an analysis of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2010 Global Burden of Disease report, 15 of the top 20 health risk factors in sub-Saharan Africa are predominantly behavioral, and the other five are highly influenced by behavior.3 Behavior change is paramount to the prevention of stunting and anemia.
Social and behavior change communication (SBCC) is a behavior-centered approach to facilitating individuals, households, groups, and communities in adopting and sustaining improved health and nutrition related practices. The approach draws upon social science and behavior change theories to address behavior and the environment within which behavior change occurs. SBCC activities can be classified into three basic categories: behavior change communication (BCC), social and community mobilization, and advocacy.
In this paper, SPRING presents pathways between SBCC delivery strategies and improved maternal infant and young child nutrition (MIYCN) practices. These pathways are based on a review of SBCC strategies and theories as well as a systematic literature review exploring the effectiveness of SBCC approaches in changing priority MIYCN practices. The literature review features three interactive tables of results.
High-Impact MICYN Practices
Figure 1 provides a pictorial representation of MIYCN practices prioritized in The Lancet’s 2008 and 2013 Maternal and Child Nutrition Series, the WHO’s Essential Nutrition Actions: Improving Maternal, Newborn, Infant and Young Child Health And Nutrition document (2013),4 the WHO’s e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions,5 and UNICEF’s report Improving Child Nutrition: The Achievable Imperative for Global Progress.6 Practices are categorized into five primary intervention areas: dietary practices during pregnancy and lactation, breastfeeding practices, complementary feeding practices, control and prevention of anemia, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related practices. It is important to note that these areas are not mutually exclusive. Interventions will often define complementary feeding to include many of the practice for the control and prevention of anemia as well as WASH practices. Evidence supporting the positive relationship between each practice and nutritional status can be found in Annex 1 of this document.
The practices presented in Figure 1 do not represent an exhaustive list of practices affecting nutritional status during the 1,000 day window of opportunity. For example, correct latch and positioning for breastfeeding are very important practices, but are not listed because they are considered sub-practices related to a high-impact nutrition intervention (exclusive breastfeeding or continued breastfeeding). Furthermore, attending antenatal care visits during pregnancy and seeking timely appropriate care for pneumonia or diarrhea are closely related to nutritional outcomes, but are not included because they are not generally considered high-priority direct nutrition interventions.
Figure 1. Evidence-Based MIYCN Practices for Improving Nutritional Status
SBCC Pathways to Improved MIYCN Practices and Status
A well thought-out conceptual framework (sometimes referred to as a theory of change) can guide program design, identification of solutions and innovations, monitoring of change, and demonstration of success. Figure 2 presents a conceptual framework illustrating pathways from SBCC delivery strategies, targeting a range of populations in order to address key behavioral determinants, improve MIYCN practices and ultimately improve nutritional status. The immediate and underlying causes of undernutrition represented at the top of the framework are consistent with the UNICEF framework:7 however, care practices are emphasized given the focus of this document on MIYCN practices behaviors.8 The bottom half of the framework presents SBCC delivery strategies for addressing the causes of undernutrition and the determinants of MIYCN practices.
Impact: Improved nutritional status is depicted at the top of the framework.
Immediate Causes: Nutritional status is influenced by two primary immediate causes or determinants: dietary intake and health status. Diet and disease are intimately related. A poorly-nourished individual is more likely to develop disease, and an ill person may require more calories, absorb calories less efficiently, or suffer from anorexia. Although either determinant can contribute to undernutrition, it often results from a combination of the two. The immediate causes of undernutrition are depicted in the second level of the framework.
Underlying Causes: Dietary intake and disease are influenced by three primary underlying causes: food insecurity, inadequate care and feeding practices (e.g., exclusive breastfeeding), and an unhealthy household environment and inadequate health services (e.g., micronutrient supplementation or timely appropriate care for diarrhea). It is important to note this includes availability and quality of services and products as well as access to and demand for products and services, for example reproductive health products and services, or fortified food products and services.
Each of these underlying causes is heavily influenced by behaviors at the household level – behaviors related to food production, purchase, storage, and intrahousehold distribution; behaviors related to MIYCN care, and behaviors related to the utilization and demand for health and sanitation services. Access to food or optimal sanitary facilities alone does not necessarily lead to improved dietary intake or health status. Where food is accessible, for example, a caretaker must still make decisions about how the food is prepared and whether and how often the food is fed to children. Furthermore, the presence of a latrine does not necessarily imply that the latrine will be utilized or utilized consistent with best practices. The underlying causes of undernutrition are depicted in the third level of the framework.
Behavioral Determinants: Behavior is complex. The framework’s fourth level depicts three primary determinants associated with the adoption of a behavior: demand, an enabling environment, and supply9:
- Demand: Adopting and sustaining optimal MIYCN practices and food and health services requires demand on the part of caregivers, their families, and communities. Demand is dependent on awareness, knowledge, and motivation to act, which is often influenced by attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of social norms. Knowledge and motivation, however, may not be sufficient. Caregivers must also have the necessary skills, self-efficacy, agency, and control of resources (e.g. allocation of food, finances, and time) to act.
- Environment: The environmental factors that enable individuals and households to adopt and sustain practices include culture, social norms and support, and role models at all layers of society. Many global, national, and local factors affect individual and household practices as well as food and health systems. An enabling environment is one in which the social, political, financial, structural, and operational systems are conducive to ensuring the availability of and access to high-quality, affordable foods and health services, and the adoption and maintenance of priority MIYCN practices.
- Supply: The availability and quality of both affordable services and food, especially complementary foods and micronutrient-rich foods, in addition to health and support services, constitute supply. This requires enabling policies, finances, and systems to account for context (farming practices, markets, and industries, as well as cultural beliefs surrounding food and health), geography, gender, and intrahousehold resource allocation. Additional factors affecting availability and quality of services and food include the skills, time, and commitment of service providers from various sectors at both the community and facility or institutional level.
Target population: The framework’s fifth layer shifts the focus from determinants to delivery science. Behavior is complex, and many people can influence whether a caretaker adopts or fails to adopt a promoted behavior. Key target populations for behavior change interventions include caregivers, family members, partners, or peers (direct influencers), as well as other gate keepers or enablers such as community and religious leaders. Successful behavior change programs often target more than one population group.
Delivery strategies: Finally, the framework illustrates key delivery strategies for improving MIYCN practices. As the primary focus of this document is to map the pathways of SBCC, greater attention has been given to SBCC delivery strategies which include community and social mobilization, BCC, and advocacy. In addition there is a wide range of non-communication strategies that can promote or enable improved MIYCN practices.
- Community and social mobilization engages and supports participation of institutions, community networks, social/civic and religious groups to shift attitudes, structures, and norms to better support priority practices.
- Behavior change communication involves face-to-face dialogue with individuals or groups to inform, motivate, problem solve, or plan, with the objective to promote and sustain behavior change. BCC activities typically target those who need to adopt and sustain priority practices (mothers, fathers, caregivers, and service providers) and may occur at home, in the community, or at a facility.
- Advocacy informs and motivates leadership to create a supportive environment to achieve program objectives and development goals. Advocacy creates awareness and encourages leaders to take actions to enable the adoption of promoted practices.
- Non-communication strategies include policy development, distribution of products (e.g., food, micronutrients, de-worming medication), and strengthening of human resource management systems, logistics or supply chain management, food value chain systems, or health management information systems.
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of the Pathways from SBCC Delivery Strategies to Improved MIYCN Practices and Status
Evidence-Based SBCC Delivery Strategies
SBCC approaches are grounded in theories of behavioral and social science. SBCC, adapted to local contexts, is generally considered effective mechanisms for improving MIYCN practices at the household level. However, there is little evidence to assist governments, donors, and programmers in understanding which approaches and tools are most effective for different types of audiences and behaviors. Donors are increasingly seeking more rigorous scientific justification to guide their investments in SBCC.
For evidence of the effectiveness of SBCC delivery strategies in improving MIYCN practices, please see SPRING’s “Evidence of Effective Approaches to Social and Behavior Change Communication for Preventing and Reducing Stunting and Anemia: Findings from a Systematic Literature Review” and an interactive web-based tool for identifying evidence for particular strategies and MIYCN practices.
Annex I. Supporting Evidence for MIYCN Practices
This annex provides detailed citations associated with each of the key practices portrayed in Figure 1 of the core document. The citations represent some of the best evidence available at the time this document was developed in 2013, supporting the prioritization of these practices for improving maternal and child nutrition during the first 1,000 days. It is not an exhaustive list of all references on the subject. The citations are organized by practice.
Actively and Responsively Feed
The WHO and UNICEF have issued guidelines on the importance of feeding behaviors and responsive feeding (WHO 2003). Relatively few studies explored feeding practices, and those that did were unable to fully separate the influence of responsive or active feeding practices from other changes in breastfeeding practices and types of complementary foods.
PAHO/WHO. Guiding Principles for Complementary Feeding of the Breastfed Child. 2003. Washington, DC: PAHO, WHO.
Vazir, Shahnaz, Patrice Engle, Nagalla Balakrishna, Paula L Griffiths, Susan L Johnson, Hilary Creed-Kanashiro, Sylvia Fernandez Rao, Monal R Shroff, and Margaret E Bentley. 2013. “Cluster-randomized Trial on Complementary and Responsive Feeding Education to Caregivers Found Improved Dietary Intake, Growth and Development Among Rural Indian Toddlers.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 9 (1) (January): 99–117. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2012.00413.x.
Some evidence suggests that active or responsive feeding does not affect weight gain.
Aboud, Frances E, Sohana Shafique, and Sadika Akhter. 2009. “A Responsive Feeding Intervention Increases Children’s Self-feeding and Maternal Responsiveness but Not Weight Gain.” Journal of Nutrition 139 (9) (September): 1738–1743. doi:10.3945/jn.109.104885.
Continue Breastfeeding Through Two Years of Age
Edmond, Karen M, Betty R Kirkwood, Seeba Amenga-Etego, Seth Owusu-Agyei, and Lisa S Hurt. 2007. “Effect of Early Infant Feeding Practices on Infection-specific Neonatal Mortality: An Investigation of the Causal Links with Observational Data from Rural Ghana.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (4) (October): 1126–1131.
Kramer, Michael S, and Ritsuko Kakuma. 2004. “The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding: a Systematic Review.” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 554: 63–77.
WHO. 2013. Long-term Effects of Breastfeeding: a Systematic Review. Geneva: WHO.
Eat Adequate Quantity of Food During Pregnancy and Lactation
Evidence focuses primarily on the relationship with low birthweight.
Khoushabi, F. 2010. “Impact of Nutritional Status on Birth Weight of Neonates in Zahedan City, Iran. Nutrition Research and Practice 4 (4): 339–344.
Mason, John B, Lisa S Saldanha, and Reynaldo Martorell. 2012. “The Importance of Maternal Undernutrition for Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health Outcomes: An Editorial.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin33 (2 Suppl) (June): S3–5.
Rao, B.T., K. Arun Aggarwal, and R. Kumar. 2007. “Dietary Intake in Third Trimester of Pregnancy and Prevalence of LBW: A Community-based Study in a Rural Area of Haryana.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine32 (4): 272–276.
Singh, M., S. Jain, and M. Choudhary. 2009. “Dietary Adequacy of Pregnant Women of Four District of Rajasthan.” Journal of Human Ecology- Delhi 25 (3): 161–165.
Eat a Diverse Diet During Pregnancy and Lactation
Arimond, M., D. Wiesmann, E. Becquey, A. Carriquiry, M. C. Daniels, M. Deitchler, N. Fanou-Fogny, et al. 2010. “Simple Food Group Diversity Indicators Predict Micronutrient Adequacy of Women’s Diets in 5 Diverse, Resource-Poor Settings.” Journal of Nutrition 140 (11) (September 29): 2059S–2069S. doi:10.3945/jn.110.123414.
Kennedy, G., N. Fanou-Fogny, C. Seghieri, M. Arimond, Y. Koreissi, R. Dossa, F. J. Kok, and I. D. Brouwer. 2010. “Food Groups Associated with a Composite Measure of Probability of Adequate Intake of 11 Micronutrients in the Diets of Women in Urban Mali.” Journal of Nutrition 140 (11) (September 29): 2070S–2078S. doi:10.3945/jn.110.123612.
Martin-Prevel, Y., E. Becquey, and M. Arimond. 2010. “Food Group Diversity Indicators Derived from Qualitative List-Based Questionnaire Misreported Some Foods Compared to Same Indicators Derived from Quantitative 24-Hour Recall in Urban Burkina Faso.” Journal of Nutrition 140 (11) (September 29): 2086S–2093S. doi:10.3945/jn.110.123380.
Eat Iron-Rich/Fortified Foods
Angeles-Agdeppa, Imelda, Marcela Saises, Mario Capanzana, Lekh R Juneja, and Noboru Sakaguchi. 2011. “Pilot-scale Commercialization of Iron-fortified Rice: Effects on Anemia Status.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 32 (1) (March): 3–12.
Gera, T., H. S. Sachdev, and E. Boy. 2012. “Effect of Iron-fortified Foods on Hematologic and Biological Outcomes: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96 (2) (July 3): 309–324.
Gibson, R. S., E. Kafwembe, S. Mwanza, L. Gosset, K. B. Bailey, A. Mullen, K. Baisley, and S. Filteau. 2011. “A Micronutrient-Fortified Food Enhances Iron and Selenium Status of Zambian Infants but Has Limited Efficacy on Zinc.” Journal of Nutrition 141 (5) (March 16): 935–943. doi:10.3945/jn.110.135228.
Huo, Junsheng, Jing Sun, Jian Huang, Wenxian Li, Lijuan Wang, Lilian Selenje, Gary R Gleason, and Xiaodong Yu. 2012. “Effectiveness of Fortified Flour for Enhancement of Vitamin and Mineral Intakes and Nutrition Status in Northwest Chinese Villages.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 33 (2) (June): 161–168.
Huo, Junsheng, Jing Sun, Jian Huang, Wenxian Li, Lijuan Wang, Lilian Selenje, Gary R Gleason, and Xiaodong Yu. 2011. “The Effectiveness of Fortified Flour on Micro-nutrient Status in Rural Female Adults in China.” Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 20 (1): 118–124.
Pinkaew, S., P. Winichagoon, R. F. Hurrell, and R. Wegmuller. 2013. “Extruded Rice Grains Fortified with Zinc, Iron, and Vitamin A Increase Zinc Status of Thai School Children When Incorporated into a School Lunch Program.” Journal of Nutrition 143 (3) (January 9): 362–368. doi:10.3945/jn.112.166058.
Thankachan, P., S. Selvam, D. Surendran, S. Chellan, M. Pauline, S.A. Abrams, and A.V. Kurpad. 2012. “Efficacy of a Multi Micronutrient-fortified Drink in Improving Iron and Micronutrient Status Among Schoolchildren with Low Iron Stores in India: a Randomised, Double-masked Placebo-controlled Trial.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67 (1) (December 12): 36–41. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2012.188.
Yang, Zhenyu, and Sandra L. Huffman. 2011. “Review of Fortified Food and Beverage Products for Pregnant and Lactating Women and Their Impact on Nutritional Status: Review of Fortified Food and Beverage Products.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 7 (October): 19–43. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00350.x.
Eat Vitamin A-Rich/Fortified Foods
Berger, S.G., S. de Pee, M.W. Bloem, S. Halati, and R.D. Semba. High malnutrition and morbidity among children who are missed by periodic vitamin A capsule distribution for child survival in rural Indonesia. Journal of Nutrition. 2007;137:1328–33.
Pinkaew, S., P. Winichagoon, R. F. Hurrell, and R. Wegmuller. 2013. “Extruded Rice Grains Fortified with Zinc, Iron, and Vitamin A Increase Zinc Status of Thai School Children When Incorporated into a School Lunch Program.” Journal of Nutrition. 143 (3) (January 9): 362–368. doi:10.3945/jn.112.166058.
Souganidis, E. The Relevance of Micronutrients to the Prevention of Stunting. Sight and Life, Vik 26(2), 2012.
Thorne-Lyman, Andrew L., and Wafaie W. Fawzi. 2012. “Vitamin A and Carotenoids During Pregnancy and Maternal, Neonatal and Infant Health Outcomes: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 26: 36–54.
Exclusively Breasfeed for Six Months
Evidence regarding exclusive breastfeeding focuses primarily on mortality/survival. There is little evidence available regarding some of the specific practices (e.g., breastfeeding on demand, correct positioning, and proper attachment).
Bhandari, Nita, Rajiv Bahl, Sarmila Mazumdar, Jose Martines, Robert E Black, Maharaj K Bhan, and Infant Feeding Study Group. 2003. “Effect of Community-based Promotion of Exclusive Breastfeeding on Diarrhoeal Illness and Growth: a Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial.” The Lancet 361 (9367) (April 26): 1418–1423. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13134-0.
Dewey, K.G., R.J. Cohen, K.H. Brown, and L.L. Rivera. 2001. “Effects of Exclusive Breastfeeding for Four Versus Six Months on Maternal Nutritional Status and Infant Motor Development: Results of Two Randomized Trials in Honduras.” Journal of Nutrition 131 (2) (February): 262–267.
Edmond, Karen M, Betty R Kirkwood, Seeba Amenga-Etego, Seth Owusu-Agyei, and Lisa S Hurt. 2007. “Effect of Early Infant Feeding Practices on Infection-specific Neonatal Mortality: An Investigation of the Causal Links with Observational Data from Rural Ghana.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (4) (October): 1126–1131.
Kramer, Michael S, and Ritsuko Kakuma. 2004. “The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding: a Systematic Review.” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 554: 63–77.
WHO. 2013. Long-term Effects of Breastfeeding: a Systematic Review. Geneva: WHO.
Feed Children a Diverse Diet
Arimond, M, Ruel M. 2004. “Dietary diversity is associated with child nutritional status: evidence from 11 demographic and health surveys.” Journal of Nutrition 134:2679-2585.
Feed Children Appropriately During and After Illness
PAHO/WHO. Guiding Principles for Complementary Feeding of the Breastfed Child. 2003. Washington, DC: PAHO, WHO.
Feed Children With Appropriate Frequency
Dewey, K and Brown, K. 2003. Update on technical issues concerning complementary feeding of young children in developing countries and implications for nutrition interventions. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 24:5-28
Initiate Breastfeeding Early
Evidence focuses primarily on mortality/survival.
Edmond, Karen M, Betty R Kirkwood, Seeba Amenga-Etego, Seth Owusu-Agyei, and Lisa S Hurt. 2007. “Effect of Early Infant Feeding Practices on Infection-specific Neonatal Mortality: An Investigation of the Causal Links with Observational Data from Rural Ghana.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (4) (October): 1126–1131.
Introduce Complementary Foods and Six Months
Dewey, Kathryn G., and Seth Adu-Afarwuah. 2008. “Systematic Review of the Efficacy and Effectiveness of Complementary Feeding Interventions in Developing Countries.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 4 (s1) (April): 24–85. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00124.x.
Lin, Carol A, Mark J Manary, Ken Maleta, André Briend, and Per Ashorn. 2008. “An Energy-dense Complementary Food Is Associated with a Modest Increase in Weight Gain When Compared with a Fortified Porridge in Malawian Children Aged 6-18 Months.” The Journal of Nutrition 138 (3) (March): 593–598.
Vazir, Shahnaz, Patrice Engle, Nagalla Balakrishna, Paula L Griffiths, Susan L Johnson, Hilary Creed-Kanashiro, Sylvia Fernandez Rao, Monal R Shroff, and Margaret E Bentley. 2013. “Cluster-randomized Trial on Complementary and Responsive Feeding Education to Caregivers Found Improved Dietary Intake, Growth and Development Among Rural Indian Toddlers.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 9 (1) (January): 99–117. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2012.00413.x.
Wuehler, Sara E., Sonja Y. Hess, and Kenneth H. Brown. 2011. “Accelerating Improvements in Nutritional and Health Status of Young Children in the Sahel Region of Sub-Saharan Africa: Review of International Guidelines on Infant and Young Child Feeding and Nutrition: IYCN in the Sahel.” Maternal & Child Nutrition 7 (April): 6–34. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00306.x.
Properly Dispose of Feces
Humphrey, Jean H. 2009. “Child Undernutrition, Tropical Enteropathy, Toilets, and Handwashing.” The Lancet 374 (9694) (September): 1032–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60950-8.
Islam, Mohammad Sirajul, Zahid Hayat Mahmud, Partha Sarathi Gope, Rokon Uz Zaman, Zakir Hossain, Mohammad Shafiqul Islam, Dinesh Mondal, et al. 2012. “Hygiene Intervention Reduces Contamination of Weaning Food in Bangladesh.” The Lancet(December): n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/tmi.12051.
Properly Store/Prepare Food
Esrey, Steven A. 1990. “Food Contamination and Diarrhoea.” World Health19–20.
Humphrey, Jean H. 2009. “Child Undernutrition, Tropical Enteropathy, Toilets, and Handwashing.” The Lancet 374 (9694) (September): 1032–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60950-8.
Islam, Mohammad Sirajul, Zahid Hayat Mahmud, Partha Sarathi Gope, Rokon Uz Zaman, Zakir Hossain, Mohammad Shafiqul Islam, Dinesh Mondal, et al. 2012. “Hygiene Intervention Reduces Contamination of Weaning Food in Bangladesh.” The Lancet(December): n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/tmi.12051.
Properly Store/Treat Water
Clasen T.F., I.G. Roberts, T. Rabie, W.P. Schmidt, and S. Cairncross. 2006. “Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews2006, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD004794. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004794.pub2.
Esrey, Steven A. 1996. “Water, Waste, and Well-Being: A Multicountry Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology143 (6): 608–623.
Sleep Under an Insecticide-Treated BedNet
Gamble, C.L., J.P. Ekwaru, and F.O. ter Kuile. 2006. “Insecticide-treated nets for preventing malaria in pregnancy.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD003755. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003755.pub2
Take Deworming Medication
Among Children
Guyatt, H.L., S. Brooker, C.M. Kihamia, A. Hall, and D.A. Bundy. 2001. “Evaluation of Efficacy of School-based Anthelmintic Treatments Against Anaemia in Children in the United Republic of Tanzania.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79 (8): 695–703.
Hall, A. et al. A review and meta-analysis of the impact of intestinal works on child growth and nutrition. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 2008, 4:118-236 doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00127.x
Idris, M.A., M.A. Shaban, and M. Fatahallah. 2001. “Effective Control of Hookworm Infection in School Children from Dhofar, Sultanate of Oman: a Four-year Experience with Albendazole Mass Chemotherapy.” Acta Tropica 80 (2): 139–143.
Taylor-Robinson, D.C., N. Maayan, K. Soares-Weiser, S. Donegan, and P. Garner. 2012. “Deworming drugs for soil-transmitted intestinal worms in children: effects on nutritional indicators, haemoglobin and school performance.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 11. Art. No.: CD000371. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000371.pub5.
Among Pregnant Women
Abel, R., J. Rajaratnam, A. Kalaimani, and S. Kirubakaran. 2000. “Can Iron Status Be Improved in Each of the Three Trimesters? A Community-based study.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54 (6) (June): 490.
Christian, P., S. Khatry, K. West. 2004. “Antenatal anthelmintic treatment, birthweight, and infant survival in rural Nepal.” The Lancet 364: 981-83.
Haider, B.A., Q. Humayun, and Z.A. Bhutta. 2009. “Effect of Administration of Antihelminthics for Soil Transmitted Helminths During Pregnancy.” The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD005547. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005547.pub2.
Take Energy and Protein Supplementation During Pregnancy
Ota E, Tobe-Gai R, Mori R, Farrar D. “Antenatal dietary advice and supplementation to increase energy and protein intake.” The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 9. Art. No.: CD000032.
Imdad, A. and Z.A. Bhutta. “Effect of balanced protein energy supplementation during pregnancy on birth outcomes.” MBC Public Health, 2011, 11 (Suppl. 3):S17.
Take Iron/Iron-Folic Acid Supplements
Alderman, H. and S. Linnemayr. “Anemia in low income countries is unlikely to be addressed by economic development without additional programs.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 30(3) 2009:265-269.
Cavalli-Sforza, Tommaso. 2005. “Effectiveness of Weekly Iron-folic Acid Supplementation to Prevent and Control Anemia Among Women of Reproductive Age in Three Asian Countries: Development of the Master Protocol and Implementation Plan.” Nutrition Reviews 63 (12 Pt 2) (December): S77–80.
De-Regil LM, Fernández-Gaxiola AC, Dowswell T, Peña-Rosas JP. “Effects and safety of periconceptional folate supplementation for preventing birth defects.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 10. Art. No.: CD007950.
Gera, T., H.P. Sachdev, P. Nestel, S.S. Sachdev. Effect of iron supplementation on haemoglobin response in children: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 2007; 44(4): 468-486.
Haider, B. A., I. Olofin, M. Wang, D. Spiegelman, M. Ezzati, W. W. Fawzi, on behalf of Nutrition Impact Model Study Group (anaemia). 2013. “Anaemia, Prenatal Iron Use, and Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” British Medical Journal 346 (June 21): f3443–f3443. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3443.
Haider, Batool A, and Zulfiqar A Bhutta. 2012. “Multiple-micronutrient Supplementation for Women During Pregnancy.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub3.
Imdad, A. and Z.A. Bhuta. 2012. “Routine iron/folate supplementation during pregnancy: effect on maternal anaemia and birth outcomes.” Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 26 Suppl 1:168-77. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01312.x.
Okebe, J.U., D. Yahav, R. Shbita, and M. Paul. 2011. “Oral iron supplements for children in malaria-endemic areas.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 10. Art. No.: CD006589. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006589.pub3.
Peña-Rosas, J.P., L.M. De-Regil, T. Dowswell, and F.E. Viteri. 2012. “Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 12. Art. No.: CD004736.
Peña-Rosas J.P., L.M. De-Regil, T. Dowswell T, and F.E. Viteri. 2012. “Intermittent oral iron supplementation during pregnancy.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 7. Art. No.: CD009997.
Sanghvi T.G., P.W.J. Harvey, and E. Wainwright. 2010. “Maternal iron-folic acid supplementation programs: Evidence of impact and implementation.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 31,2 (supplement): S100-S107.
Vir, Sheila C, Neelam Singh, Arun K Nigam, and Ritu Jain. 2008. “Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation with Counseling Reduces Anemia in Adolescent Girls: a Large-scale Effectiveness Study in Uttar Pradesh, India.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 29 (3) (September): 186–194.
Yakoob, M.Y. and Z.A. Bhutta. 2011. “Effect of routine iron supplementation with or without folic acid on anemia during pregnancy.” FBMC Public Health 11(Suppl 3):S21.
Take Malaria Prophylaxis During Pregnancy
Klemm, R, A.E. Sommerfelt, A. Boyo, C. Barba, P. Kotecha, M. Steffen, and N. Franklin. 2011. Are we making progress on reducing anemia in women? Cross-country comparison of anemia prevalence, reach and use of antenatal care and anemia reduction interventions. A2Z: The USAID Micronutrient Project, AED/FHI 360, June 2011.
Use a Latrine
Cameron, L. et al. Impact Evaluation of a Large-Scale Rural Sanitation Project in Indonesia. Impact Evaluation Series No. 83. Policy Research Working Paper 6360. 2013. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Dangour, A.D., L. Watson, O. Cumming, S. Boisson, Y. Che, Y. Velleman, S. Cavill, E. Allen, R. Uauy. 2013. “Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 8. Art. No.: CD009382. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009382.pub2.
Humphrey, Jean H. 2009. “Child Undernutrition, Tropical Enteropathy, Toilets, and Handwashing.” The Lancet 374 (9694) (September): 1032–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60950-8.
Use Multiple Micronutrient Powder
De-Regil, L.M., P.S. Suchdev, G.E. Vist, S. Walleser, J.P. Peña-Rosas. 2011. “Home fortification of foods with multiple micronutrient powders for health and nutrition in children under two years of age.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 9. Art. No.: CD008959. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008959.pub2.
Salam, R.A., C. MacPhail, J.K. Das, and Z.A. Bhutta. 2013. Effectiveness of Micronutrient Powders (MNP) in women and children. BMC Public Health 13(Suppl 3):S22 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-S3-S22.
WHO. 2011. Use of multiple micronutrient powders for home (point of use) fortification of foods in pregnant women: a systematic review. Geneva: WHO.
Haider, B.A. and Z.A. Bhutta. 2012. “Multiple‐micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 11. Art. No.: CD004905. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub3
Wash Hands with Soap at Critical Moments
The five critical moments for handwashing include: after defecation, after cleaning a child, before preparing food, before eating, and before feeding a child.
Alive & Thrive. 2012. “Summary of Handwashing Initiative: Why Hand Washing Is Critical to Child Health and Nutrition in Bangladesh – How to Make It a Reality.”
Bhutta, Zulfiqar A, Tahmeed Ahmed, Robert E Black, Simon Cousens, Kathryn Dewey, Elsa Giugliani, Batool A Haider, et al. 2008. “What Works? Interventions for Maternal and Child Undernutrition and Survival.” The Lancet 371 (9610): 417–440.
Ejemot-Nwadiaro, Regina I, John E Ehiri, Martin M Meremikwu, and Julia A Critchley. 2008. “Hand Washing for Preventing Diarrhoea.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD004265.pub2.
Esrey, Steven A. 1996. “Water, Waste, and Well-Being: A Multicountry Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology 143 (6): 608–623.
Humphrey, Jean H. 2009. “Child Undernutrition, Tropical Enteropathy, Toilets, and Handwashing.” The Lancet 374 (9694) (September): 1032–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60950-8.
Islam, Mohammad Sirajul, Zahid Hayat Mahmud, Partha Sarathi Gope, Rokon Uz Zaman, Zakir Hossain, Mohammad Shafiqul Islam, Dinesh Mondal, et al. 2012. “Hygiene Intervention Reduces Contamination of Weaning Food in Bangladesh.” Tropical Medicine & International Health (December): n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/tmi.12051.
Footnotes
1 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 1990. Strategies of Improving Nutrition of Children and Women in Developing Countries. New York, NY: UNICEF.
2 Practices and behaviors are used somewhat interchangeably in this document. While the authors recognize subtle differences between the two, in the context of MIYCN priority care practices are much the same as priority behaviors.
3 Lim, S.S., T. Vos, A.D. Flaxman, G. Danaei, K. Shibuya, H. Adair-Rohani, et al. 2012. “A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.” The Lancet. 9859:2224– 2260.
4 WHO. 2013. Essential Nutrition Actions: Improving maternal, newborn, infant, and young child health and nutrition. Available at www.who.int/nutrition (accessed October 2013).
5 WHO. E-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions. Available at http://www.who.int/elena/en/ (accessed October 2013).
6 UNICEF. 2013. Improving Child Nutrition: The achievable imperative for global progress. Available at http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Nutrition_Report_final_lo_res_8_April.pdf.
7 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 1990. Strategies of improving nutrition of children and women in developing countries. New York: UNICEF.
8 This draws upon theories of behavior change which have been summarized by the USAID-funded Communication for Change (C‐Change) Project. C-Change Program. 2012. C Modules: A Learning Package for Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC) (Version 3). http://c-changeproject.org/sites/default/files/sbcc_module0_intro.pdf. Other versions can be accessed at http://www.c-changeprogram.org/c-channel_issue39_mar2012.
9 These categorizations of demand, supply (including availability and quality), and environment are based on the work by Marsh, Alegre, and Waltensperger. 2008. Journal of Nutrition 138: 630-633.